Harlem Hellfighters Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Harlem Hellfighters - Essay Example In this period, the 369th, a military association for individuals of color was framed in Harlem. This wonderful gathering battled for the French in World War I and helped the French annihilation their foes. It is this achievement that prompted a situation inside government quarters on how to manage the dark warriors during World War II. The Negroes were viewed as substandard compared to the white soldiers, obviously on the grounds that the previous were deficient in insight and order (Graebner and Waller 1996, p.194). Larger part of white individuals were against the consideration of people of color in the U.S armed force contending that the blacks would bomb wretchedly in the military and would just carry disgrace to America. In any case, because of mounting open weight, President Roosevelt was constrained to remember individuals of color for the military. The 369th was called up to obligation in the Antiaircraft. For the individuals of color in Harlem, 369th was not just battling for the respect of their nation, yet in addition for that of the individuals of color in America. The achievement of 369th would speak to the accomplishment of the dark network in America. 369th went through a year in preparing at Oswego and came out as expertly prepared warriors. On their strategic Hawaii, 369th experienced bigot thoughts, for example, individuals of color had tails and that a relationship with a person of color would prompt an infant with a tail. The 369th likewise needed to manage episodes of individual white fighters becoming inebriated and offending people of color. As per Graebner and Waller (1996, p. 197) the last would truly retaliate for equity and respect. Some road battles had lethal outcomes, as it occurred on two events when white officers kicked the bucket in a road battle. The people of color engaged with the two occurrences were, in any case, cleared on grounds that they were battling for their respect. In the military, the 369 had the option to deserve admiration even from junior white troopers who had to salute their â€Å"black seniors†. When the

Can We Attain Happiness Without God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Would we be able to Attain Happiness Without God - Essay Example They see that the fulfillment of the bliss is subject to the accomplishment of the nearness of God in our lives in certain way. The strict lessons and the ordinary purposes of the view vary in accomplishment of the satisfaction. A dominant part of the religions discuss the significance of God as the basic power behind the achievement of the satisfaction. There are various conspicuous scholars, similar to Aristotle; who have spread that bliss is a perspective. This structures the base of the conflicting idea of the meaning of joy. The Christian lessons place a great deal of significance on the looking for of God as a methods for satisfaction (Milton 179). This can be ascribed to the fundamental perspective on God as a main impetus of this universe. This additionally radiates from the way that God as observed as a supreme being who does well to all. This fundamental property qualifies him as a quintessential wellspring of joy. The contemporary savants like Voltaire have highlighted the material idea of joy (Olson 201). They likewise contend that satisfaction is a condition of the brain. Some have an outer locus of joy, as, the material belongings, cash, garments and spouse. For some others, it is inward in nature. After an exhaustive examination of the considerable number of focuses, I agree with the perspective on the confidence, that God gives us joy. It is of probability to me as it puts the onus of joy to a more prominent force. This rests the vessel of bliss in a force that is greater than us, superior to us, more smart than us and eventually causes joy to appear to be increasingly feasible. Temperances Virtue is a sort of good greatness. The group of uprightness is certain and renders a feeling of natural goodness in any person. They fill in as the foundation of the improvement of any individual. They are inborn to the advancement of the enormity of any person. This can likewise be named as the example of the idea in all the people. The ideals can be consid ered as a subset of the qualities. The qualities are the base of the arrangement of the tasks of an individual. On the off chance that the qualities are kept up in the best possible manner, that prompts an inside and out advancement of the person. There is a grouping of the ethics, which will in general separation the ideals into various unmistakable examples. The set up writing discusses two sorts of ethics, one is the Kantian righteousness; the other is the Aristotle sort of the prudence. Aristotle esteems notice a rundown of qualities. They are balance, the act of equity, the act of generosity, wonderfulness, the pride (monitoring the accomplishments of self and not being vainglorious), delicacy and a couple of different characteristics. These are the general rundown of the ideals that are normal to the writing. Aristotle has proposed the act of the control in all the ethics. This will help in the achievement of the necessities of the considerable number of people. Everything mus t be rehearsed in the correct sort of the balance for the fulfillment of the objectives. This aides in the advancement of the major idea of people anytime of time. One of the models is the utilization of the balance over the reasoning. There is the need to rehearse center way by not getting too restless about anything, while at the same time keeping up the earnestness of any circumstance. I have faith in the act of the ethics, as they would help us in turning out to be better people. It would likewise permit us to increase a

Comparison of theories on death and grief

Examination of hypotheses on death and anguish Passing can be characterized as the unquestionable natural finish of life. So as to contemplate and comprehend this wonder, one needs to dive into its human view. Woody Allen once said I dont mind kicking the bucket, I just dont need to be there when it occurs. The experience of such a misfortune, particularly inside a gathering of individuals as needy of each other just like the family, is frequently the reason for distress for the deprived people. The impression of death, in any case, appears to vary from culture to culture, as do the customs including the adapting of the family (Kart, and Kinney, 2001). Zoroastrianism, perhaps the most seasoned religion to have at any point existed, was portrayed by its faith in one God, just as the requirement for reservation of the virtue of the components. Demise for the Zoroastrians implied a rejoining of the spirit with its watchman and defender, fravashi. The dead were kept in the Tower of Silence, customarily, to be decontaminated naturally. Life and demise were in this manner not a start and an end but rather parts of a more prominent band of life. East to these Persian grounds gets by up-to-day Hinduism, Indias fundamental religion. Hinduism represents the indestructibility of the spirit and thus its cycle from birth to death, before it is renewed. Demise again isn't viewed as the end, however simply as a phase inside a more noteworthy circle of importance. Here, in any case, incineration is compulsory, less a few special cases (Garces-Foley, 2005). Japanese ceremonies contrast in the way that a greater piece of the network is included, than the family, mostly because of their collectivistic culture (Kart, and Kinney, 2001). After death, a bedside administration is performed where the family is supported and washing of the dead body happens. This is thought to empower the soul to proceed onward to the following scene. The western culture in actuality, will in general separate the living from the dead by permitting as meager collaboration and introduction to death as could be expected under the circumstances. A total outsider is alloted the arranging of the memorial service, while the clinic thinks about the body itself. During the burial service, grievers are to appear as meager melancholy as conceivable out in the open. All things considered, the effect of social class is clear here, since the measure of grieving communicated by the family relies upon their social and instructive foundation. (Kart, and Kinney, 2001) . It gets clear from the abovementioned, that a guarantee to life following death and the propagation of some piece of the present presence (soul, body, synthetics, and so on) just as the possibility of a superior spot, was and still is planning to enable the family to continue with their regular day to day existences after the deprivation and pain. Aside from strict elements, the contrast between societies may likewise exhibit various endeavors of individuals to adapt to the anguish of death. Passing can be seen from a huge number of various stances, which add to the administration and articulation of grieving from the family and relatives. This makes speculation of practices towards anguish hard, if certainly feasible (Bates et al., 1993). The philosophical way to deal with death and deprivation proposes the presence of two sorts of death; great and terrible demise. For the family, the differentiation of these two, unclear thoughts, relies upon the conditions with which the withering individual kicks the bucket. As indicated by Grosz (2003), the perishing individual must have his/her torment constrained by the treatment, beyond what many would consider possible. Different conditions for a decent passing incorporate the capacity of the patient to settle on cognizant choices of his/her own for the treatment, just as be dealt with as an individual, bound with encounters from life, and not as a mysterious patient. Additionally, the perishing individual probably deal with his/her sickness and deal with any incomplete clashes, for example, family, hecticness or individual undertakings. On the off chance that these conditions are met, at that point the similarity to a decent demise could be gained, therefore allowing the endu ring individuals to get to their regular day to day existences quicker and more beneficial, having managed the adapting of the mourning quicker and more effectively than if a terrible passing had happened. 2. Meanings of Bereavement, Grief and Coping Loss is the condition the family as well as individual are engaged with, after the passing of a notable individual (Stroebe et al., 2008). This hardship is just liable to cause distress, the regular reaction to a misfortune. Anguish can be characterized as the inside appearance of the forceful feelings, raised from mourning (Stroebe et al., 2008). It is frequently utilized conversely with the term grieving, which is however the outside managing anguish. In other words, grieving is the presentation of pain out in the open, which in the long run prompts the tending to and managing the last state (Stroebe et al., 2008). Since the line among sadness and grieving is this thin, the two have come to be utilized as umbrella terms (Grosz, 2003). Adapting is simply the requesting assignment of adjusting psychosocially, to testing, compromising as well as unsafe conditions (Moshe, 1996). The pressure is overseen or even disposed of under social and subjective undertakings (Lazarus, and Folkman, 1984; Moos, and Schaefer, 1993). A few people however have been seen to experience issues in reintegrating themselves inside their more seasoned every day schedules or in relating to relations with different people. Maladaptive adapting can thwart the recuperation pace of the family as well as people, offering ascend to sentiments of dejection, melancholy, mental trips and even medical issues identified with worry, similar to the stomach torment and breathing challenges (Parkes, 1972). Individuals who have endured loss out of the blue, or experienced it under stunning conditions, similar to self destruction and crime, are the ones well on the way to procure maladaptive adapting (Grosz, 2003). How people adapt to loss, anguish and grieving, relies upon various components. Right off the bat, as it has just been referenced, profound and strict convictions or practices and culture of the individual, will in general influence their method for survey passing, along these lines advancing various distinctive adapting techniques, which are to be examined later on. Once more, the manner in which demise was experienced just as the holding the individual had with their significant one, preceding passing, appears to likewise influence the adapting. The more needy the individual was to the expired, the harder it is to give up (Grosz, 2003). At long last, the family itself is a factor significant to the managing the demise of the significant one, particularly with regards to kids and youthful grown-ups. In the event that the family is open and minding towards every one of its individuals and is prepared to share the agony and encounters, at that point the entire procedure of managing th e demise of the perished is significantly encouraged and quickly survive (Walsh, and McGoldrick, 2004). All the above elements are, by and by, impacted by the very character of the griever, which by the day's end is the most significant everything being equal. Coming from the previously mentioned contemplations, identified with the effect of ones demise on his/her condition, a definitive point of this exposition is to explore how individuals adapt to the passing of a relative. Further, various important hypothetical focuses have been presented for the better comprehension of the issue, alongside exact proof. 3. Stage Theories of Grief I. The Five Stages of Death (DABDA) In 1969, top thanatologist Kã ¼bler-Ross impacted the perspective of clinical and wellbeing brain research, as she sharpened the world general feeling on critically ill patients and their treatment, in her book On Death and Dying. There, she depicts the five phases of distress individuals experience while in loss of their significant ones. It is of most extreme significance as she has underscored numerous multiple times herself, to comprehend that not all individuals are the equivalent or experience the five phases in a similar arrangement, for a similar measure of time, or even stand up to some by any means. As she underpins, everything relies upon the individual and their condition. The stages were first idea to just apply to the patients, yet later, their application was expanded to a misfortune similar to the instance of a separation, loss of occupation, demise of a relative. Forswearing is viewed as the first of the five phases set forward by Kã ¼bler-Ross (1969). She at first corresponded this marvel to various components affecting the patient, and for our situation, the family. She considered the way that the manner in which one is recounted the irreversibility of the fatal infection, alongside the prior encounters with the perishing individual and reliance on him/her, influences by one way or another the reach out to which one is associated with the specific stage. In any case, however she proposed that everybody went through this phase sooner or later, she just noticed a not many cases that had kept the refusal boundary up til' the very end. Frequently, the people developed increasingly more sure of passing on. Outrage is the stage thought to follow refusal, regardless of whether no genuine example can be distinguished for all people as of the grouping of stages, movement and the executives. Forceful feelings as fierceness and wrath, are said to overpower the individual who uproots this resentment to all headings. This, is the thing that makes this stage the most hard to be managed since wrath emits nearly at irregular. To Kã ¼bler-Ross (1969), this stage is again something everybody goes through at some point in their lamenting period. Haggling, in spite of the fact that not exactly as acclaimed as the remainder of the stages, is believed to be vital to the grieving family. Now, the individual would pine for a correction of the circumstance or for an opportunity to return to when numbness of the occasion won. Encountering the demise of a significant one is frequently excruciating, disturbing the constant existence of the family. This is sufficient purpose behind one to wish to return to what they used to think about typical, before the information on death. Dealing, the approaching of some help as a byproduct of another, could be focusing on the exceptionally self of the individual, or

Literature Research Project - Free Essay Example

Literature review 1. Introduction: The reviewing of existing literature relating to a topic is an essential first step and foundation when undertaking a research project. The purpose of a literature review is to demonstrate that one is familiar with what is already about a subject Baker (2000) With this consideration, this chapter will review the literature under two main categories: Theoretical background for the research and literature on TPS. Theoretical Background Introduction: The Resource Based View (RBV) extended with dynamic capabilities is of particular relevance to this dissertation as it focuses on how resources and capabilities provides better performance and generates competitive advantage to manufacturing firms. This section of the literature review contains a detailed review of theoretical view point of RBV mainly related to achieving competitive advantage by firms. Following the background to the theory, limitations and recent developments have been discussed to gain a better understanding of the theory as it applies to manufacturing organizations. Final part of this section presents the justification of RBV as a theoretical lens for this dissertation. Background to Resource Based Theory: The resource based view of the firm (RBV) is one of the most widely accepted theories in the field of strategic management (Barney, 1991; Peteraf, 1993; Priem and Butler, 2001). Edith Penrose made contributions to RBV theory as early as 1959 by emphasizing the importance of resources to a firms competitiveness. The time line of RBV highlights some of key the contribution made by authors to the resource based theory. In addition to the resource perspective, inclusion of concepts like sustained competitive advantage and economic perspective over years has increased the robustness of RBV theory. Although RBV theory has taken different conceptual stand points since 1959, focus on the firms resources to achieve better performance has remained as its central tenet. Taking a resource perspective, resources (internal and external) are viewed as the key to firms growth (Barney, 1991; Penrose, 1959) and balance between exploitation of existing resources and development of new ones leads to superior performances (Wernerfelt, 1984). The above views raise a question do all resources contribute to firms growth? answering the question Teece (1982) argues that not all the resources in a firm are specialized and emphasizes firms need to effectively utilize its valuable and lesser valuable resources. In addition to the stand point of resource focus on firms growth, Sustained competitive advantage gave new insights to resource based theory describing how firms can win over potential competitors by implementing inimitable value creating strategies (Barney, 1991; Porter, 1985; Rugman et.al. 2002). Rumelt (1984) introduced the term isolating mechanism in an attempt to explain uncertain imitability i.e. why certain firms perform better than their competitors. Barney (1991) suggests that firms as bundle of resources and heterogeneous resources which are inimitable and immobile create sustain competitive advantage with maximum profits for firms. These benefits can be reaped when the resources of the firms are considered to be, valuable i.e. enables a firm to implement strategies that improve its performance; rare i.e. valuable resources are not possessed by large numbers of competing firms; imperfectly imitable because of: unique historical conditions, causal ambiguity, and social complexity; and finally non-substitutable i.e. no strategically equivalent valuable resources are available (Barney, 1991). Taking a economic perspective, work of Mahoney and Pandian (1992) has added an significant dimension to RBV by suggesting that firms may achieve rents, defined as returns in excess of owners opportunity cost (Tollison,1982) not by mere possession of superior resources but through effective utilisation of these resources. Similarly, Peteraf (1993), argues that sustained competitive advantage is defined as above normal rates of return (rents) and is achieved when resources in a firm meets the following four conditions: heterogeneity (superior resources), expost limits to competition i.e. forces to limit competition for rents, imperfect resource mobility and ex ante limits to competition i.e. limited competition to superior resources in the market (Peteraf, 1993). Heterogeneity Ex-ante limits to competition Imperfect mobility Ex-post limits to competition Rents obtained Rents captured by the firm Rents not offset by cost Rents sustained Competitive advantage As a summary to the background of RBV theory, Rugman and Verbeke (2002) point out that writings in RBV have focused extensively on the creation of sustained competitive advantage by superior resources to the extent that no competitor has the ability to imitate such resources. Limitations of Resource based theory: Inspite the significant contribution to the field of Strategic Management, resource based theory has faced several criticisms along its evolutionary path. The major limitations of RBV are: Static nature of RBV: According to Priem and Butler (2001), Sustained competitive advantage comes about a period of time and may shift over time. Based on this view, they point out that RBV is static in nature i.e. changes with regard to the evolution over time of the resources and capabilities have been neglected in the theory. Ambiguity in definitions and concepts: 1). Definitions of key concepts such as resources, competences, capabilities have not been agreed upon or remain ambiguous and controversial (Mahoney and Pandian, 1992; Helfat et al. 2002); tautological (Priem and Butler, 2001) which has lead to inconsistencies in the theory 2). Within the RBV, there is a lack of conceptual model that includes an explanation on origin and value creation ability of heterogeneous resources (Priem and Butler, 2001) and without this explanation, it becomes difficult to understand how firms use RBV to achieve sustained competitive advantage (Priem and Butler, 2001; Helfat et al. 2002). 3). RBV does not address appropriately the question of explicating the process by which advantage was created and that activities are appropriate focus of analysis than resources (Porter, 1985). 4). Empirical research and validation is problematic in RBV due to inclusion of non measurable variables (Godfrey Hill, 1995; Priem and Butler, 2001). Recent developments in RBV: Recent developments in RBV are presented here in an attempt to overcome the limitations of resource based theory. One such recent development to overcome the limitation of static nature of RBV (Priem and Butler, 2001) is the dynamic capability (Teece et al., 1997) perspective that has extended the resource based theory to the concept of developing capabilities. According to Teece et al. (1997), a firm can stay ahead of its imitators and have sustained competitive advantage by developing capabilities based on sequences of path-dependent learning routines. The underlying principles of this approach is that firms develop dynamic capabilities by engaging in learning activities market research, collection of competitive intelligence, development of deep customer knowledge, research and development activities, strategic alliances, benchmarking, and test marketing (Teece et al., 1997). Building on the initial dynamic perspective, Eisenhardt and Martin questions the credibility of RBV to wi thstand the high velocity markets as initially proposed by Teece et.al.(1997) According to Eisenhardt and Martin (2000), dynamic capabilities are the organizational and strategic routines by which firms achieve new resource configurations as markets emerge, collide, split, evolve, and die. The value of dynamic capabilities for firms for competitive advantage lies in their ability to alter the resource base: create, integrate, recombine, and release resources achieved through idiosyncratic strategies of the firm. Another significant development in RBV is the development of VRIO framework by Barney (1995). According to him, in order to have a sustainable competitive advantage, a resource or capability should not only be Valuable, Rare, Inimitable (including non-substitutable) but also organized i.e. readiness to exploit the resources with a firm level orientation. Further he suggests that firms structure and control mechanisms must be aligned to allow for the exploitation of the heterogeneous resources. This framework can be used as a tool to help managers to identify the firms internal strengths and weaknesses, value creating resources, source of competitive advantage, and effective utilisation of resources. Empirical work in RBV Given that resource based view is one of the most widely accepted theory in strategic management, it could be easily assumed that RBV has rich empirical support towards its core findings (Barney and Arikan, 2001), however, such assumption is not true (Priem and Butler, 2001; Newbert, 2007). Table 1 highlights some of the recent contributions made to empirical studies in the RBV theory. Note: Total tabulated does not equal their sums because several articles employ multiple approaches. Author Contributions Barney (2001) Empirical works in RBV have mainly focused on testing relationships between heterogeneous resources and their performances. Newbert (2007) Newbert carried out a study to investigate the extent to which RBV has been empirically tested and the support it has received. Key findings from a sample size of 55 articles (empirically tested) on RBV, 1) resource based theory is only marginally empirically supported (53%) as against 98% consistency concluded by Barney and Arikan (2001) through their study of 166 empirical research articles; 2) Resource heterogeneity approach (91%) has been the most widely used whereas dynamic capability approach is the least used (5%); 3) researchers have begun to deploy variety of theoretical approaches in RBV; 4) Much of articles (85%) have heavily relied on the work of Barney (1991). Based on his findings, he recommends future researchers to shift their focus from Barneys (1991) work towards dynamic capability approach of RBV in order to reduce the wide variation found across the theoretical approaches used in the empirical studies. Armstrong and Shimizu (2007) Through a review of 125 empirical studies they have identified several key issues associated with the design (i.e. operationalizing resources and performances) of empirical test for RBV. Theoretical approaches of RBV are complementary to each other i.e. one might provide useful insights to another and with this integrative framework Researchers can extend their empirical work to relate to others to overcome the criticism of fragmentation of empirical studies in RBV as stated by Newbert (2007). Non-significant results obtained through carefully crafted empirical study design can contribute to further understanding of values and boundaries of RBV. Armstrong and Shimizu (2007) conclude that RBV can become robust with a closer tie between theoretical advancement and empirical rigor. RBV applied to Manufacturing paradigm Theoretical developments in RBV have created strong insights for firms while formulating manufacturing strategy (Schroeder et.al.2002). The theory of RBV extended with dynamic capabilities is of particular relevance to this dissertation as it focuses on how resources and capabilities provides better performance and generates competitive advantage to manufacturing firms. RBV lens applied to manufacturing firms help in investigating the competencies, source of competitive advantage, production capabilities and the resulting performance outcomes (Coates and McDermott, 2002). For firms trying to adapt a best manufacturing practice, RBV can help in understanding and developing skills that needs to be built idiosyncratically to create competitive advantage for the firm (Schroeder et.al.2002). Justification of RBV for dissertation The use of Resource Based View (RBV) as a theoretical lens for this dissertation is justified in two steps; firstly the suitability of RBV is justified from TPS perspective i.e. suitability of RBV as theoretical lens for understanding TPS; secondly the RBV is justified from Transferability perspective i.e. suitability of RBV as theoretical lens for understanding production system of specific manufacturing firm that has adopted TPS. TPS perspective: Following the research objective presented in Chapter 1, aim of this dissertation is to understand the core concepts of TPS and identify its transferability to other automotive manufacturing firms. Even though TPS has spread across borders of Toyota, it could not be imitated with any success of Toyota because of the value created through first entry advantage (Barney, 1991), complex system remaining ambiguous. Taking a dynamic resource based view of TPS, we see that the resources or capabilities (JIT, Jidoka, Kanban, Kaizen, Poka yoke) developed by Toyota over years are valuable, rare among competitors, cannot be imitated perfectly and not easily substituted (equivalent to TPS in achieving end results) (Barney, 1991). Applying the work of Schroeder et.al. (2002) to this dissertation, TPS could be viewed as a proprietary manufacturing technology which has evolved constantly through a combined process of internal learning (Kaizen, Jidoka i.e. automation with human intelligence) and ext ernal learning (JIT, Customer service). The fact that TPS has evolved over time by constant learning and embracing new technology proves its dynamic capabilities. These arguments justify the suitability of RBV to be used for this dissertation from TPS perspective. Transferability perspective: Following the research objective presented in Chapter 1, it could be seen that scope of this dissertation is to map TPS with a firm specific production system and bring out the transferability of TPS. To support the justification, Schroeder et.al. (2002) suggests that RBV is a suitable frame work for manufacturing research which aims at understanding how manufacturing processes (resources) contribute to competitive advantage when multiple competitors adopt same innovation (TPS). Problems experienced in simplistic transferability of TPS have led to evolution of firm specific production system which is deviant from original TPS (Ebrahimpour and Schonberger et al., 1984). Taking an resource based approach we can see that the above statement goes in hand with Schroeder et.al.(2002) view that proprietary process (TPS) are inimitable and cause ambiguities (Barney,1991). On a similar note, Barney (1991) states that, to obtain competitive advantage, RBV emphasizes that the firms should devel op idiosyncratic capabilities in manufacturing process that cannot be duplicated. Taking a dynamic capability perspective (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000; Teece et.al.1997), this dissertation will identify learning and knowledge creation process established by the specific firm that would give competitive advantage and inhibit transfer (Barney, 1991, 1995, 2001; Teece et.al.1997). These arguments justify the suitability of RBV to be used for this dissertation from Transferability perspective. Literature on TPS 2. Introduction The literature on TPS will first introduce lean production and define several key words and concepts that are included in the research project. Following the introduction, it will be possible to introduce and analyse the literature on Toyota Production System more commonly used in manufacturing firms under two categories: TPS perspective and Transferability perspective. Literature on key principles of TPS is discussed in the first section and with this foundation; the second section will discuss the literature on transferability of the TPS including the issues faced by automotive manufacturing firms implementing the TPS. Finally the section is concluded by drawing out the research questions for this research project based on the review of the literature. Introduction to Lean production: Lean production was coined by John Krafcik, an International Motor Vehicle Program (IMVP) researcher and was introduced by Womack et.al. (1990) through the book The Machine that changed the world. The literature review on lean production needs an examination of the transition in the history of automotive industry from Craftsmanship to Mass production (1915) and from Mass production to Lean production (1970s). Bureaucratic attitude towards workers and inflexibility of the system led to the down fall of mass production system and eventually lead to losing its credibility as the best manufacturing practice (Krafcik, 1988; Womack et.al. 1990). Lean production arose at the fall of Henry Fords mass production system (Womack et.al., 1990). Even though the term Lean came into existence only in 1990, its history dates back to post Second World War II period, when Taichi Ohno and Shingo of Toyota Motors Inc. over period of thirty years (1940s 1970s) developed Just in Time (JIT) which became T oyota Production System (TPS). TPS was developed in response to weak economy in Japan, together with problems like limited capital availability, shortage of manpower and limited sources of raw materials (Ohno, 1988; Womack et.al., 1990). Literature Review on TPS TPS Perspective Introduction to Lean Production Definitions in TPS Building Blocks of TPS Benchmarking of TPS JIT Heijunka Kaizen Jidoka Standardized work flow Transferability Perspective Factors affecting implementation of TPS Transferability of TPS The principles of lean production have been exclusively derived from TPS and interchangeably used. The advantages of lean production over mass production are that, it uses less of everything when compared to mass production-half the manufacturing space, half the investment in tools, half the engineering hours to develop a new product in half the time, far less than half the needed inventory on site, results in many fewer defects, and produces a greater and ever growing variety of productions (Womack et.al. 1990). The fact that Toyota made profits using TPS amidst economic turbulence caused by oil crisis in Japan in 1974 led to the spread of TPS outside the borders of Toyota (Ohno, 1988; Womack et.al., 1990). In the 1970s and early 1980s, the western world was absolutely clueless as to what TPS was or how Japanese industries were flourishing in international competition with this new production practice since most of the literature on TPS was in Japanese language. The TPS entered the western world in 1984 when a joint venture NUMMI (New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc) was formed between Toyota Motor Company and General Motors in California. Seminal contributions to literature on TPS (in English) were: Mondens Toyota Production System (1983) and Ohnos Toyota Production System: Beyond large-scale production (1988). However, it was mainly through the extensive research work carried by Krafcik, James.P.Womack, Daniel T.Jones and Daniel Roos, knowledge about TPS in the form of Lean production and its principles came into light to rest of the world. With several US manufacturing adapting Lean production in 1990s, it gained importance as the exemplary manufacturing practice (Oliver et al. 1994). Womack and Jones (1996) in their book Lean Thinking, proposed a five step lean transformation process for companies and includes: 1) Valuation from the point of the end customer, 2) Identification and elimination of non value adding steps in value stream, 3) Integrated sequence of product flow to the customer, 4) let customers pull value from the next upstream activity, 5) pursue perfection through continuous improvement. Based on their work, it could be speculated that Lean Production is the western way for understanding Toyotas production principles. In the recent years, lean manufacturing is viewed by many companies as the latest management trend for cost-reduction and improving operational sustainability to meet the ever changing customer demand. Informed by many other fields of management, lean production is growing significantly to include and promote lean thinking up and down the organization to improve the profitability and the efficiency of the company (Womack and Jones 1996). Today the concepts of Lean have traversed beyond the manufacturing paradigm and have adopted a Lean enterprise approach extending throughout the value chain right from customer order until delivery (Reicchart and Holweg, 2007). Liker (2004) in his book The Toyota Way suggests that lean enterprise is an end result of application of TPS to all the business areas of a company. With continuous improvement achieved through lean thinking and lean enterprise approach emerging to be the key thrust of lean in recent years, there seems to be subtle difference between lean and TPS as suggested by Haak (2004). Further, he states that TPS is a production management system specific to Toyota whereas Lean production although derived from TPS, can be used for any industrial or service sector companies. TPS perspective Introduction: The Toyota Production System (TPS) is a comprehensive production management system which combines management philosophy and practices to reduce lead-time, inventory and cost while improving productivity and quality at the same time (Monden, 1981; Ohno, 1988). Ideas and works of Edwards Deming (PDCA cycle), Henry Ford and several others have been borrowed by Taichi Ohno while developing TPS. Taking an enterprise perspective, Womack et al. (1990) describes TPS as an integrated system which draws together manufacturing, logistics with suppliers and customers functions. Key Target Areas for TPS: The key target areas for TPS are, establishing continuous flow and elimination of waste in a production system (Monden, 1981; Ohno, 1988). According to the Ohno (1988), TPS aims at designing out Muri, Mura and Muda in manufacturing processes, of which elimination of waste has greater impact on the manufacturing process. Further according to Ohno (1988) waste in manufacturing firms can be grouped into seven main categories: overproduction, waiting, inventory, motion, conveyance, processing and correction; and points out the wastes due to overproduction as the most important since it conceal other types of wastes. Building blocks of TPS: Research project in TPS requires a thorough understanding of its core concepts. The TPS House model developed by Taichi Ohno will be adopted for the purpose of this research project to answer the research objectives and question. JIT and Jidoka are the two pillars of Toyota Production System (Ohno, 1988). Sugimori et al. (1977) states that there are two distinctive features in TPS; 1) Just-in-time (JIT) production which is only necessary products at necessary time in necessary quantity aimed at cost reduction through elimination of waste and minimized inventory levels; 2) respect for human which lays emphasis on the active participation of empowered workers with full capabilities termed Jidoka. (Source: Adapted from ) Just-in-Time (JIT) Production JIT is a production system that makes and delivers exact quantity of products needed by the customers just in the time it is needed with a minimum resources of manpower, material and machinery. Three elements of JIT are Continuous flow, Takt time and Pull production.( Ohno and Mitto, 1988) Continuous flow Establishing the material flow is one of the key target areas in TPS. Continuous flow aims at minimizing Work In Progress (WIP) inventory by manufacturing and transporting the exact quantities at the time when its is needed (Monden, 1983; Ohno, 1988, Shingo, 1987; Sugimori et al. 1977). Continuous flow eliminates build-up of inventory and defects with in the system, enables quick response time, facilitates standardized work and thereby improves efficiency of the process (Monden, 1981; Ohno and Mitto, 1988). Takt Time reference Takt time is the pace of production needed to meet customer demand. The purpose of takt time is to precisely match production with demand. Takt time was first used as a production management tool in the German aircraft industry in the 1930s. The concept was widely utilized throughout the Toyota supply base by the late 1960s. Pull production Pull control system is a scheduling system of production instructions that replaces what has been utilized by the following process to result in a short lead time from order to shipment (Monden, 1981). It allows for minimal inventories and easily adjusts to changes in demand (Ohno, 1988). Sugimori et al (1977) states that Kanban is a signaling device that gives authorization and instructions for the production or withdrawal (conveyance) of items in a pull system. There are two kinds of Kanban typically used: Withdrawal Kanban specifies quantity of product the subsequent process should withdraw from the preceding process and Production Kanban specifies the quantity of product the latter must produce. Jidoka Jidoka is one of the two pillars of the Toyota Production System along with just-in-time. According to Ohno (1988), Jidoka refers to empowerment provided to machines and operators to detect when an abnormal condition has occurred and immediately stop work. Jidoka is also referred to as Autonomation, meaning automation with human intelligence (Ohno, 1988). Sugimori et al. (1977) states that respect for human lays emphasis on the active participation of empowered workers with full capabilities termed Jidoka. Two common prevention techniques in Jidoka are Pokayoke and Andon (Monden, 1981; Shingo, 1987; Ohno 1988). A Pokayoke is an element of the process that senses a defect or non-conformance and will not allow the process to proceed. Andons are visual displays such as lights, flags, etc. which indicate the operating status of work centre. Together these help in identification of problems, elimination of defects, variability reduction and capacity maximization (Ohno, 1988; Womack et al. 1990). Heijunka Heijunka is a production planning method which evenly distributes the production volume and production variety over the available production time (Ohno, 1988). According to Shingo, (1987), Heijunka prevents preceding operations from experiencing uneven workload and makes the planning process easier. Heijunka uses a card or tag at the final work station to pull parts into shipping. According to Monden, (1983) pull system with Heijunka in a TPS environment can convey products to delivery in less than ten minutes. Standardized work Standardized work is the foundation for process improvement in production as it organizes and defines worker movements (Ohno, 1988). According to Monden (1981); Shingo (1987) and Ohno (1988), the expected results of implementing standardized work flow includes: 1) higher quality; 2) providing safer and more efficient operations; 3) ensuring proper use of equipment and machinery; 4) helps in problem solving and 5) independent control of cells. In assembly operations, where quality issues are frequently caused by human variation in methods, standardized work forms help in serving the process control function. (Sugimori et.al. 1977) Kaizen Kaizen means ongoing improvement involving everybody without spending much money (Imai, 1986). According to Lander and Liker (2007), Kaizen refers to the learning at an organizational level by establishing known standards. Kaizen or continuous improvement relates to the value creation for an entire or an individual process with less wastage (Ohno, 1988). Based on this, there are two levels of kaizen: (1) System or flow kaizen focuses on the overall process (2) process kaizen focuses on individual processes. Benchmarking of TPS Delbridge et.al (1995) states that, the need for continuous improvement drives manufacturing firms to benchmark with their competitors. This view is supported by Partovi (1994), who argues that benchmarking is the search for the best industry practices, which will lead to exceptional performance through its implementation. The benchmarking studies on TPS carried out by IMVP between 1985-1990 remains to be the best example till date. The systematic comparison of the performance of the major car manufacturers made by IMVP was published in the book The Machine that Changed the World written by Womack et.al (1990). Similarly, based on the study of 18 plants, Delbridge et.al (1995) extended the work of the IMVP study to develop a generic benchmarking methodology, which would provide measures of manufacturing performance that could be tested against the use of the lean production model. Transferability perspective Introduction: This section of the literature review will focus on the transferability perspective of TPS associated with manufacturing firms. To understand the transferability of TPS, it becomes important to identify and acknowledge the factors that affect its implementation positively and accordingly discussions on transferability perspective are presented in two sections, Factors for implementation of TPS and Transferability of TPS. Factors for successful implementation of TPS Given the benefits TPS brings to companies, its management and production concepts have caught the attention of academic and industrial world and this in turn has helped in the availability of rich literature in this area of study. Stand points on implementation factors of TPS or Lean Production put forth by some of the authors are presented in this section. Lee et al. (2007) have brought out several organizational factors that need to be in place for successful implementation of TPS, these include: management strategies, labour management cooperation, employee and union involvement, open communication and investment in training. Lee et al. (2007) developed a hypothetical research model for explanation on diffusion of TPS across firms and borders. Mutation of TPS by companies takes place either through replicating entire manufacturing arrangements of TPS or technical knowledge obtained from consultancies. Degree of mutation by recipient companies is strongly dependent on the interna l contingencies and external constraints with which the company operates. Knill (1999) has identified 5 initiatives for successful implementation of Lean manufacturing and these include: supplier programs, continuous improvement; flexibility; elimination of waste; and zero defects. Taking a business process perspective, Motwani (2003) has developed a theoretical framework for implementation of lean manufacturing. Based on the study conducted in a tier one automotive supplier company, Motwani (2003) concluded several factors for successful implementation of lean manufacturing and these include: maximization of value addition, common journey with common language, strategic initiatives and support from management, use of visual controls and mapping techniques, measurement of progress in terms of total product cycle time, standardized work, training and empowering people, one piece flow through cell layout and improved relationship with suppliers. Shah and Ward (2003), argue that lean production is a highly integrated system with interrelated components that h elps to achieve variability reduction in the process i.e. supply, processing time and demand. They have identified ten components of lean production that makes it a high performance system and these includes : supplier feedback, JIT delivery by suppliers, supplier development, customer involvement, pull system, continuous flow , set up time reduction, total preventive maintenance, statistical process control and employee involvement. According to Schonberger (1982), improved performance at shop floor level can be achieved by direct relationship between material flow and process improvements. Towill (2007) views the total TPS package to be inclusive of four sides: process, supply, demand and control and points out that system integration produces better results than the individual components. According to Deming (1986), 94% of errors in manufacturing belong to the system, taking this into consideration, Motwani (2003) suggests that implementation of TPS should follow a systemic appro ach to reduce the variations. Liker and Wu (2000) have stated five principles that results in superior supply chain within the TPS environment, they are: development of suppliers; leveled scheduling; delivery synchronization; development of handling capabilities and encouraging JIT supply. Spear and Bowen (1999) point out that continuous identification of problems is the key to building a rigid, flexible and dynamic (adaptable to changes) TPS environment and in an attempt to decode TPS, they suggest that the DNA of TPS (Spear and Bowen, 1999) is a set of four rules: Rule 1: Highly specified work in terms of content, sequence, timing, and outcome. Rule 2:Direct customer-supplier relationship with unambiguous modes to send requests and receive responses. Rule 3:The pathway for every product and service must be simple and direct. Rule 4: Any improvement must be made scientifically, under the guidance of a teacher, at the lowest possible level in the organization. Taking an industrial engineering stand point, Shingo (1987) argues that, use of industrial engineering concepts like motion study i.e. learning by doing along with TPS helps in identifying the source of improvements in the system. To support this view, Towill (2007) states that concepts of industrial engineering used with in the context of TPS not only help in achieving product flow but also information, capacity and cash flows across the entire business. Following the argument of superiority between TPS and TQM in recent years, Motwani (2003) states that several companies have started to integrate elements of TQM and TPS into their process to draw potential benefits from both these ideologies. To support this, Motwani (2003) points out that while TPS aims at reducing variations and inventory in the process; TQM on the other hand helps in problem solving and continuous improvement at organizational level. Transferability of TPS Following the literature on factors that affect the implementation of TPS, this section will present discussions on the transferability of TPS from the stand point of several authors. Lee et al. (2007) has explained the transferability of TPS along three perspectives: convergence, structuralist and contingent. Convergence perspective points out that TPS can be transferred completely to other organizations around the world. On the contrary, the structuralist perspective questions the universal transferability of TPS. Drawing ideas from the above two, the contingency perspective points out implementation of TPS for improved performance is conditioned and constrained by several internal and external operating factors. Adapting the standpoint of Lee et al. (2007) the discussions on transferability of TPS presented here will be based on these three perspectives i.e. convergence, structuralist and contingent. Taking a convergence perspective, Oliver et al. 1994 describes TPS as an exemplary manufacturing practice that other automotive manufacturing companies want to implement, formation of NUMMI in 1984 between General Motors and Toyota provides the best example. Similarly according to Cusumano (1988) and Womack et al. (1990) TPS is the world class manufacturing system of 21st century and can be transferred to other organizations across the globe. The study on TPS carried out by IMVP provides a systematic comparison of the performance of the major car manufacturers against Toyota. Womack et.al (1990) through his book The Machine that Changed the World has detailed the principles of TPS and explained how companies across the world can implement TPS to sort their production problems. Taking a structuralist perspective, Spear and Bowen (1999) argues that even though TPS has been implemented in western and eastern hemispheres, the overall success rate is relatively low and this is primarily because of confusions arising during selection of tools and techniques for implementation. Since TPS has its root in Japan, several critics have raised serious doubts about universal transferability of TPS. To support this view, Nakamura et al.(2006) argue that TPS is specific to the socio-economic context of Toyota in Japan, and hence adaptation of TPS outside the borders of Japan can be achieved only with greatly difficult mainly because of the huge cultural differences observed between eastern and western cultures. Taking a contingent stand point, Shah and Ward (2003) argue that TPS is conceptually multifaceted and improved performance by manufacturing firms adapting TPS is achieved only by simultaneous implementation of several concepts. Ebrahimpour and Schonberger (1984) point out that along the years, TPS has taken various forms deviant from the original ideas put forth by Toyota in finding its application in manufacturing industries. To support this view, Womack et al. (1996) argues that with other business functions such as Supply chain management, RD, customer relations embedded into concept of TPS, there is a paradigm shift observed in TPS from a manufacturing perspective to a holistic organisation wide management best practice lean thinking. Similarly Amasaka (2002) states that a New TPS has emerged to integrate the original principles of TPS with recent operational, quality management theories and best practices to advance the global production technology under the existing banner of T PS. According to Bartezzaghi (1999), several transmuted production models have been developed from TPS in an attempt to deal with changing business environments. To support this view, Sugimori et al. (1977)states that TPS in itself was developed as a unique production model by Toyota in 1960s in response to prevailing environment in Toyota i.e. lack of natural resources, work attitude, enterprise unions, employment practices, cultural settings. Similar to these views, Liker et al. (1999) points out that while adapting TPS, many manufacturers have developed their own production system strongly influenced by critical factors specific to the business environment such as market, culture, business strategies, workforce, production capabilities, supply structure, management involvement. Summary In summary, this body of literature on TPS has discussed its transferability from different stand points. Proponents of transferability claim that TPS can be implemented by automotive manufacturers and other manufacturing firms around the world; on the other hand the opponents argue that TPS is not transferable completely because of cultural differences and confusions in appropriate tool selection. Opposing these two views several authors argue that key to transferability of TPS depends on the specific business setting of a firm and development of capabilities within organizations to the extent which they are distinctive and consequently provide a competitive advantage to the firm. This leads to the main research question regarding the transferability of TPS to understand the degree of closeness between implementation and original principles together with the transferability issues faced by companies. Research Question: Is the Toyota Production System transferable to other automotive manufacturing firms? This main research question can be broken into the following sub questions a) How closely does the implementation follow the original principle of TPS? b) What are the transferability issues faced by companies implementing the TPS? Having identified the research question for this project, the chapter following will discuss about the methodology that was used for collection of information and analysis of the findings to answer the research questions mentioned above.

To what extent does environment play an important role in...

To what extent does environment play an important role in character’s behaviour towards others? Books: Great Expectations, Charles Dickens, 1861 Lord of the Flies, William Golding, 1954 Environment is a vital factor in determining the behaviour of characters; the books both agree and contradict with each other though. William Golding is of the view that humans share an innate evil: he strips boys of the order of society; he places them in a primitive environment; and in the subsequent story, their conduction descends from that of being civilised into that of evil chaos. He employs Simon, a boy of rare quality, to illustrate this by having him realise that the beast is not real, it exists only â€Å"inside us†. Charles Dickens writes about the†¦show more content†¦However, as time goes on and civilisation seems further away, as hope- and want- of being rescued fades, their system degenerates. The ever-present violence succeeds peace: originally it starts of as being a game, Ralph â€Å"returned as a fighter-plane, with wings swept back, and machine-gunned Piggy†; when they eventually hunt their first pig, Jack boasts, You should have seen the b lood!; the boys kill Simon in a frenzied ritual dance, even Jack and Piggy are not innocent as they too were present though they try to forget it; Piggy is killed; then Ralph is hunted like an animal, by the â€Å"savages† of Jack’s dictatorship, he only survives because he runs into the British Navy on the beach. In Great Expectations, Pip is an innocent boy to start off with. The reader sympathises him, from the outset he is identified as an â€Å"orphan† and Mrs. Joe, his sister- who many adults keep spitefully reminding Pip- â€Å"brought [him] up by hand†, abuses him. She is always shouting at him and punishes him with things such as the â€Å"Tickler.† Pip is also berated at the Christmas dinner: Mrs. Hubble ‘asked, Why is it that the young are never grateful? This moral mystery seemed too much for the company until Mr. Hubble tersely solved it by saying, Naterally wicious.Show MoreRelatedRole of Fate in Tess of the DUrbervilles5058 Wor ds   |  21 Pagescentury. This novel is remarkable like all the other Hardy’s novels for the tragic vision it indicates; there is a story which ends in a tragic manner. In so far as Hardy is concerned, he writes tragedy of fate which has a major role to play. This novel is almost like the Greek tragedy in the classical Greek tragedy in the sense that they wrote play in a way where Aristotle wrote Greek tragedy and other things. He was dealing particularly with plays. But the world view was essentially disastrousRead MoreThe Effects of Advertising on Children33281 Words   |  134 Pages...................................... 21 Attention, recognition and recall................................................................................................. 21 Australian Communications and Media Authority 1 Preferences and behaviour .......................................................................................................... 22 Repetition and advertising effectiveness..................................................................................... 22 ConclusionsRead MoreDuchess Of Malf Open Learn10864 Words   |  44 Pagesand marriage in the Malfi court, and the social conflicts to which it gives rise. The unit guides you through the first part of the play and will help you to develop your skills of textual analysis. This unit focuses mainly on Acts 1 and 2 of the play. You should make sure that you have read these two acts of the play before you read the unit. The edition of the play that is used in this unit is the Pearson Longman (2009) edition, edited by Monica Kendall. However, there are free versions availableRead Morepreschool Essay46149 Words   |  185 Pagespublications, videos, and other instructional media available from the Department can be obtained without charge by writing to the CDE Press Sales Office, California Department of Education, 1430 N Street, Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901; faxing to 916-323-0823; or calling the CDE Press Sales Office at the telephone number shown above. Notice The guidance in the California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 2) is not binding on local educational agencies or other entities. Except forRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesChristian Holdener, S4Carlisle Publishing Services Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Printer/Binder: Courier/Kendallville Cover Printer: Courier/Kendalville Text Font: 10.5/12 ITC New Baskerville Std Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text. Copyright  © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United

Obesity Better Policies For A Healthier America 2015

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Teaching Music to Visually Impaired Students Essay Example For Students

Teaching Music to Visually Impaired Students Essay The purpose of this study was to research successful strategies for teaching music to mainstreamed students who are visually impaired. The way visually impaired students learn classify them into one of three learning groups; visual learners who learn by sight, tactile learners who learn from touch and auditory learners who learn by hearing. Strategies for each learning style are provided as well as domain specific accommodations and modifications for instrumental, vocal and general music. Emphasis is put on the fact that instructors must properly assess the abilities of the visually impaired student in question before applying any suggested strategies. In addition, instructors should not abandon other types of learning once a successful strategy is found. Keywords: visual impairment, blind, music, Braille The 1954 ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education case motivated parents of children with disabilities to advocate and make a push for equal access to education for their children (Abeles, 2010). The ruling of the 1972 case, Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARA) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania stated that children with mental retardation were entitled to free, appropriate public education (as cited in Abeles, 2010). This ruling led to the 1975 passing of Public Law 94-142, titled Education for All Handicapped Children Act. The law has been revised over the years and is now referred to as the IDEA or the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Abeles, 2010). Public Law 94-142 has been creating new challenges for teachers since its implementation in 1975 by including students with a wide range of disabilities in the everyday classroom through mainstreaming and inclusion. The purpose of this study is to research and present effective strategies for teaching instrumental, vocal and general music to visually impaired students. Review of Literature The severity of a students visual impairment can range from low vision to completely blind. Three different learning styles emerge based on each students visual ability; visual, tactual, or auditory (Coates, 2012). Teaching strategies for each of these learning styles will first be examined. The section after will consist of domain specific (instrumental, choral, general music) accommodations and modifications. Visual Some students who have low vision or are partially sighted can still use their eyes Teaching Music to Visually Impaired Students By crybaby magnifiers or scopes as an optical aid, or have their music enlarged (Coates, 2012). Some students with vision loss prefer reverse polarity background display (black background with white notation) (Igloo, 2005). In addition to enlarged music, special stands can be used to aid the student. The special stands should be made to have two-piece arms that extend and enable the reader to be closer to the music without moving the stands base (Microseconds, 1988). Enlarged music often leads to multiple age turns, which becomes troublesome for many students. Lime Lighter is an electronic device that displays enlarged versions of scanned music on a screen. Students can advance the written music with a foot pedal while they are playing. A stylus tool can be used to add rehearsal marks to the music and a playback feature can play the written music at tempo. Tactual Tactual learners learn through the sense of touch. These students can learn to read music by using Braille. Teaching a student to use literary Braille is often easier then going straight to Braille music, which uses a different set of Braille codes (Igloo, 005). Literary Braille allows students to use the Braille alphabet that they are already familiar with to write and read music. Using a small Braille computer or note taker such as Parallelize or Brilliantine, the students can enter the letter name of each note and add an abbreviation such as FL. For flat or SSH. For sharp (Igloo, 2005). Literary Braille is useful for writing notes and pitches but does not translate the concept of meter and rhythm. An entire music symbol system correlating to the print music system exists, and a large amount of sheet music for individual or group use is available. Taking advantage of existing resources, teachers can provide Braille music so that blind students have the opportunity to learn to read music at the same time that sighted students do. If the effort is successful, the Braille student can read music independently and can participate in ensemble groups or perform as a soloist to the extent that his or her musical ability allows (Somalia, 1998, up. 3). Louis Braille (1809-52) developed the Braille music system using the same six-dot cell used in literary Braille. Students who can already read literary Braille often learn the Braille USIA system much quicker than students who are new to Braille altogether (Berry, 1965). There are two main steps when learning to read Braille music. First, the students must be able to read and recognize the different Braille cells. Next, they have to learn the sound of the rhythms that are associated with each cell (Igloo, 2005). What value is there in being able to read a quarter-note triplet followed by a dotted quarter and an eighth note with your fingertips if you dont know what those signs sound like in real-time (Igloo, 2005, n. P. )? Once a student learns to read Braille music it is the teachers responsibility to revive the music. Instructors can use many different resources to find Braille music that already exists. The music section of the National Library Service (NILS) for the Blind and Physically Handicapped is one of the best sources for borrowing Braille music in the United States (Somalia, 1998). Music vs Sport, a Superflous Rivalary EssayTactual learners who play instruments that dont require both hands (trumpet, tuba, baritone or valve trombone) can mount their instrument on a stand leaving a free hand to follow Braille music (Microseconds, 1988). It is a good idea to choose a method book series that comes with CD recordings of each exercise (Somalia, 1998). These types of recordings help auditory learners rehearse and memorize their parts. Vocal No science is more important to the blind musician than the psychology of music memorization (Ordering, 1933, up. 10). Many visually impaired and blind students eave absolute pitch but need memory training to learn extended melodic and harmonic passages (Slaw, 2009). This is especially important for tactile and auditory learners who are visually impaired. Acquiring Braille music, recording parts and using peer mentors are all methods that can help vocalists memorize their parts. Breaking off into soprano, alto, tenor and bass sectionals can help students better hear their parts when first learning new music. General Movement activities are very prevalent in general music settings. Students with visual impairments are used to moving within a limited space for their own physical retention. As a result, they often feel uncomfortable participating and moving among a class of sighted children (Barnstorm, 1996). Barnstorm explains 3 different planes of movement. The vertical plane extends from the floor to the highest reachable point, the horizontal plane extends outward in a circle around the student and the societal plane extends from the tip of a finger pointed up and out to the tip of the toe on the opposite side pointing down and out. Stretch bands and parachutes can be used to provide a safe space and encourage students to use their full range of actions throughout the different planes. Clear and concise verbal descriptions of the movements and hand-over-hand modeling can also be used to assist movements throughout the classroom (Barnstorm, 1996). Visuals and listening maps are used on a daily basis in the general music classroom. Instructors must create additional resources that can be synthetically used by tactual learners. Puff paint (a raised paint that the student can feel), sand paper, different textured cloth and pipe cleaners can be manipulated to create different shapes and patterns (Mazurka, 2004). These shapes and patterns can be used o represent, rhythms, college syllables, or even sections of a song in the form of a listening map. Conclusions Court cases such as Brown v. Board of Education and PARA v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania eventually led to the passing of what is now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The IDEA demands equal rights for all students with disabilities. This study provided many strategies, accommodations and modifications to help music teachers educate visually impaired students. Every strategy above requires an extra amount of effort from the instructor. No student is owing to come to beginning band with music already cut to fit a modified marching lyre. Just as a student in second grade wont come to music class with a tactile listening map that matches the visual aids the other students take advantage of. Although more work is involved, an instructor shouldnt take on the challenge alone and must build a network of support to help the student succeed (Wheeler, 2010). This network should include the student, parents, classroom teacher, student aid, Braille teacher and the developmental therapist for vision (DTV). Once established, this network can become a valuable source for support. Additional support and resources can be found through organizations such as the Music Education Network for the Visually Impaired (NEVI) and the National Resource Center for Blind Musicians (NRC). Implications for Practice Before applying any of the strategies listed above, an instructor must first assess the abilities of the student in question. This can be done by looking at the students Individual Education Plan (PIPE), talking to other teachers and having discussions with the parents. However, a one on one assessment with the student is often the most valuable (Coates, 2012). An instructor should tailor his or her lessons to match the torrents and learning style of the individual student. However, he or she should not abandon other types of learning. It is to the students advantage to be able to learn music in several ways: Braille, ear, dictation, or a combination of any of these.